Update: 2021-02-11 03:01 AM -0500

Grammar of the Burman Language

CareyGram01.htm

From Grammar of the Burman Language, by F. Carey, 1814.
- https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=mmEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false 201102
Downloaded copy in TIL HD-PDF and SD-PDF Libraries, and in TIL Bk-Cndl Online Library
- FCarey-GrammBurmanLang<Ô> / Bkp<Ô> / BkCnd<OL> (link chk 201103)
There are are 351 printed pages in the downloaded copies, but no TOC.
However, in - https://books.google.fr/books?id=mmEOAAAAQAAJ 210112,
there is a Table des matières, which gives the book divided into 26 sections.

Downloaded and set in html and edited by U Kyaw Tun (UKT) (M.S., I.P.S.T., USA), and staff of Tun Institute of Learning (TIL).
Not for sale. No copyright. Free for everyone. Prepared for students and staff of TIL Research Station, Yangon, MYANMAR : http://www.tuninst.net , www.romabama.blogspot.com

index.htm | Top
BG-indx.htm

Contents of this page

Preface
   The year 1814, in which F. Carey wrote his grammar, is just over 200 years ago - but long enough for
   Nature to change many things. With regards to Burmese grammar, how much have we progressed?
   Why is still Phonetics not taught in schools when our Akshara is a phonetic language - a great advantage
   over English which is just a Alphabetic language.

Ch01
Section01 :
Of the Aksharas Characters
§001 §002 §003 §004 §005 §006 §007 §008 §009

On the Pronunciation of Vowels
Similar pairs
§010 §011 §012 §013 §014 §015
Dissimilar pairs
§016 §017 §018 §019
§020 §021 §022

Before you proceed further, see - The Vowels - Soul of a language in my notes in BG-indx.htm

On the Pronunciation of Consonants
row#1 §023 §024 §025
row#2 §026 §027 §028
row#3 §029 §030 §031
row#4 §032 §033 §034
row#5 §035 §036 §037
row#6 §038 §039 §040 §041 §042
row#7 --- §043 §044 §045 ---

§046 §047

Ch01 : Section02 : Combining the Aksharas (vowels or consonants) with other Aksharas (vowels or consonants)
Of Compounding Aksharas ~~Letters~~
§048 §049 §050

Romabama Akshara Compounding Process#2 :
- consonant + a vowel,
Of compounding the Vowels with a Consonant (Table I.), e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {i.} --> {ki.}
§051 §052 §053 §054 §055 §056 §057

Romabama Akshara Compounding Process#3
- consonant + another consonant,
Of compounding Consonants , e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {ya.} --> {kya.}
§058 §059 §060 §061 §062

Nasals: Dot-above {þé:þé:tín}] sign
- the instrument for nasalization
§063 §064 §065 §066 §067

Conjuncts or stacked consonants:
Pali conjuncts {paaHT.hsín.}- {paaHT-twè:}
§068 §069

Go to next page: CareyGram02.htm (link chk 210206)

Search string: F Carey - A Grammar of the Burman Language

Author's footnotes

UKT 210115: Carey's pronunciations (known from his transcriptions) are, in general, wrong. To make corrections, and to simplify his statements, I've introduced the following terms:
Letter of Alphabet --> Akshara {ak~hka.ra.}
initial consonant --> onset
vowel --> nuclear vowel of the syllable or inherent vowel of letter
final consonant --> coda
combination --> medial (pronounceable), or conjunct (mute)
Also, note that English does not have tenuis sounds: what they most misunderstand
is the sound of {ka.}/ {k} which they often take to be {ta.}/ {t}.

UKT notes
• The author F. Carey (1786-1822)
• Life of F. Carey during events in Burma
• Mixing up of Palatals

Contents of this page

Preface

UKT 201226: The 18th century English transcriptions of Burmese words are so strange that I had a hard time trying to make out what they are in Bur-Myan. It is one of the reason for suspending my work many years ago on The Burmese Empire a hundred years ago - by Father Sangermano, 1833. - sang-s-indx.htm

In this work by F. Carey, we find another drawback. He writes: " has the sound of k in king". He did not mention how the Burmans would call this character, and also he did not indicate the "k in king" are English. I've accordingly removed this drawback by giving the name of as "Ka-major" derived from Bur-Myan pronunciation "ka gyi:" which is spelled as {ka.kri:} but pronounced as "ka (pause) gyi (emphatic)" meaning the "big ka": [Ka-major] {ka.} has the sound of k in <king> . Note how I've bold-ed k and have angle-bracketed <king> .

(pre3)
The Burman empire and the Kingdom of Siam have been long known to the European nations, as countries included in what geographers call India beyond the Ganges {gïn~ga mric}; but their boundaries and extent are but little known, and the various nations which border upon them to the north and north-east are known in a still smaller degree.

Towards the close of the fifteenth, and during the whole of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Siam and Pegu were much frequented by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English, each of whom, at different times, possessed factories in those countries, and had extensive mercantile dealings with the inhabitants. Little however has been left upon record concerning the manners, customs, and religion of those nations, and still less respecting the various languages [speech {sa.ka:} and script {sa}] which are spoken among them.

The only persons who attempted to write on the affairs of these nations in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were Pinto, Faria de Souza, Monsieur de-la Loubere, and [Engelbert] Kæmpfer; some of whom had opportunities of visiting those countries. With the exception of the last however, little authentic information is to be gathered from their works.

(pre4)
In the year 1800, Col. Symes published his "Embassy to the Burman Empire." This work contains the most accurate account of that nation which has ever been presented to the public: Col. S. has therein faithfully related all the facts and circumstances which came within his knowledge; his opportunities, however, were not such as could enable him to give an accurate account of the language.

UKT 201211: See An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the year 1795, by Michael Symes, Major in His Majesty's 76th Regiment, 1800, TIL HD-PDF and SD-PDF libraries:
- MSymes-EmbassyAva1795<Ô> / Bkp<Ô> (link chk 201212)

It is highly probable, that the religion of Boodha [Buddha {boad~Da.}] was the prevailing one throughout Bengal and Hindoost'han [Hinhu-India], from its first establishment there till the expulsion of that party, which is supposed to have taken place about three hundred years before the Christian area: and that to escape the cruelty of their persecutors [Hindu-Brahmins], the Boudhists [Buddhists] then emigrated towards the South West as far as Ceylon, and to the Eastward throughout the Burman dominions and the kingdom of Siam. From this period then must be dated the introduction of the religion of Boodha into the Burman country, and with it the Magudha [Magadha] language, which is evidently a dialect of the Sungskrit [Sanskrit].

The writings of Boodha contain a summary of all the doctrines received as authentic, and revered as of divine authority, by the Siamese and Burman nations. These religious books, which were originally written in the Magudha or Palee [Pali] language, have been translated into the Burman language, and very copious commentaries have been written upon them by successive Burman authors. The Burmans invariably assert that they were originally brought from Ceylon. They abound with fabulous stories and legends of events (pre4end-pre5begin) however, which are said to have occurred in the upper provinces of Hindoost'han. The manners and customs of the people who are the subjects of these stories, resemble those of the nations of Hindoost'han, and greatly corroborate the idea that the religious books, and consequently, the religion of the Siamese and Burmans, were originally brought from thence by the circuitous route of Ceylon.

UKT 201121: I doubt that F. Cary would have known about the overland routes from Magadha to northern Burma long before the birth of the Buddha. No wonder he thought that Buddhism was brought into Burma "by the circuitous route of Ceylon. See map:
Pilgrim monks from Burma had made regular visits to Buddhgaya during the late Pagan period, and had left an inscription:

When the religion of Boodha [Buddha {boad~Da.}] was the prevailing one in Hindoost'han, many of its forms and ceremonies were probably different from those now practised among the Burmans; but the circumstance of its former prevalence in India may be inferred from the numerous images of Boodha which are to be seen in different parts of Hindoost'han; some lately dug up among the ruins of Gour were evidently disfigured by the Mahometan monarchs when they took possession of that province. [UKT ¶]

Search string: Translation of an inscription in the Pali Character and Burmese Language on a stone at Buddh Gaya in Behar

The Burmans appear to have had from time immemorial a greater intercourse both in a literary and commercial point of view with Hindoost'han and the nations to the west, than they have had with the Chinese. A circumstance, perhaps, to be attributed to the difficulty of becoming acquainted with Chinese books and literature.

The system of Astronomy and Laws prevalent in the Burman dominions appear to be substantially the same with those which prevail in Hindoost'han. These were, in all probability, first introduced into the Burman Empire by the Brahmunas [Brahmana Poannar {braah~ma.Na. poaN~Na:} of of Mani-poora {ma.Ni.pu-ra.} मणिपूर

It is an authenticated fact that Muni-poora has always supplied (pre5end-pre6begin) this nation with Astronomers and Diviners of the Brahman sect, and that these have always had a considerable influence in the Burman court. These profess to be of the Hindoo religion, and followers of Bruhmu {bRah~ma} [According to Hindu myth, who created the World, at the behest of Vishnu-deva to rule: an idea diagonally opposite of Buddhist view.]; and it appears that they have been indefatigable in diffusing their sentiments through the Burman country. It is true, they have failed in spreading their religious tenets, but they have amply succeeded in introducing their system of astronomy and the laws of Munoo {ma·nu.Dûm~ma.þût}. The laws, and the system of Astronomy, at present adopted by the Burmans appear therefore to have come to them from India through Muni-poora.

UKT 201212: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wareru_Dhammathat 201212

No traces of Chinese religion appear in the Burman empire; and the only circumstance in which the Burmans seem to have imitated the Chinese in latter ages, is in their mode of building and in their official equipage, all of which is evidently of Chinese origin. Except in construction and style, the Burman language, which is the subject of the following pages, has, however, every appearance of having originated from the Chinese, being, like it, made up of a certain number of monosyllabic sounds, derived from natural objects, and most commonly conveying a general idea of some action or quality: these words bear but little resemblance to those of any of the languages spoken to the westward of the Burman dominions.

It is probable, that there was a period in which the Burman language was merely a dialect of the Chinese, and that the introduction of the religion of Boodha {boad~Da.} brought with it the Sungskrit {þän-SkRRi.ta.} संस्कृत language, or rather that dialect of it called the Magudha {ma-ga.Da.}, which may have been one great cause of the Burman language's gradually (pre6end-pre7begin) assuming its present form. At the present day it abounds with words evidently derived from the Magudha, some of which are become quite naturalized by use and custom; other again, not quite so common in conversation, are found in their religious books to a degree scarcely to be conceived. The language being formed upon the monosyllabic system, this renders it impossible that words consisting of many syllables should be blended therewith without being perceived; and any one with the least attention may always detect every word of a foreign origin.

The Burman language, then, in its formation, seems to resemble the Chinese, but, in its idiom and construction, the languages of Hindoost'han, and it may consequently be styled a language which partakes both of the monosyllabic and polysyllabic system.

There are but few words in the Burman language which coincide with the Chinese in signification. Some vestiges of similarity may, however, be traced among the verbal roots or monosyllabic sounds. [UKT ¶]

UKT 201125: The term verbal roots {a·mric} is not commonly met in Bur-Myan grammar, an observation I've checked with my good old friend U (Dr.) Tun Tint of MLC. However, see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_language 201125
"The basic word order of the Burmese language is SOV (subject-object-verb). Pronouns in Burmese vary according to the gender and status of the audience. Burmese is monosyllabic (i.e., every word is a root to which a particle but not another word may be prefixed). [54] Sentence structure determines syntactical relations and verbs are not conjugated. Instead they have particles suffixed to them. For example, the verb "to eat," {sa:} is itself unchanged when modified."

This circumstance, among others, serves to strengthen the idea that at some remote period was, no satisfactory evidence appears. The most probable conjecture is, that the introduction of foreign words and phrases, which accompanied the religion of Boodha, tended to polish the Burman tongue, and caused it to partake in some measure of the polysyllabic plan.

Since the introduction of the Magudha language into the Burman Empire, the Burman language has been much cultivated. This (pre7end-pre8begin) is corroborated by the fact that many Grammars and Dictionaries of the Magudha {ma-ga.Da.} language are still extent: many of the writings of Boodha {boad~Da.} also, which are to be met with in every part of the country, have been translated into Burman; and the commentaries upon them by Burman writers are so numerous as almost to defy calculation. [UKT ¶]

Learned Burmans have also written many treatises upon the Burman language, which consist chiefly of directions for writing the roots correctly, and for translating from the Magudha into the Burman language; but no one has yet attempted improving the vernacular language of their own country. It is a fact, that a Brahmun [Brahmin] of Bengal, who has only acquired a smattering of the Sungskrit [Sanskrit], looks up on the Bengalee, his native language, as beneath his notice.

From what has been said, it will appear that the Burman language is formed from monosyllabic roots, and founded upon the monosyllabic system; but that this system is again modelled in such a way as to admit of the construction and idiom of a polysyllabic language. This will probably appear with greater evidence from the present work.

Proper names, and names of sensible objects excepted, all nouns are formed regularly from verbal roots, and from these verbals are formed adjectives and participles; the language is also supplied with inflective terminations for all the cases of nouns.

The chief peculiarity of the Burman language lies in the verbs.
(pre8end-end of Preface)

Contents of this page

Chapter 01

Section 01 : Of the Akshara Characters

(p001)
The Burman * ( Cp001-fn01) abugida ~~alphabet~~ consists of forty-five akshara ~~letters~~ {ak~hka.ra.} of which twelve are vowels {þa.ra.} and thirty-three consonants {byæÑ}. [notice the absence of Double-dot {wic~sa.} in ]

UKT 210204: I've been looking into the real meaning of the Pali-Myan word Ak'khara {ak~hka.ra.} which implies the opposite of something that is not stable. Ak'khara {ak~hka.ra.} implies the one-to-one relationship of marking and sound, i.e. between script and speech - the basis of a perfect phonetic language.

Vowels : {þa·ra.}

{a.} ɑ ^† (Cp001-fn02) -- {a} a -- {I.} i -- {I} ee -- {U.} oo {U} oo
{É} e -- {è:} i -- {AU:} au -- {AU} au -- {än} an -- {a:} ?

UKT 210105: In BEPS languages, except in Eng-Lat, vowels {þa·ra.} are differentiated in various ways, such as:
1. Matching pair vs. Non-matching pair: {þa·wûN} vs. {a.þa·wûN}; .
2. Intrinsic vowel vs. Nuclear vowel of the akshara: {mwé-hkän þa·ra.} vs. Nuclear vowel of the CVÇ syllable {Ñu-ka.li þa·ra.}
3. Vowel-Letters: {I.} {I} ; {U.} {U} ; {É} {AU:}, vs.
Vowel-signs: -- {i.} {i} ; {u.} {u} ; {é} {au:}
Note: Romabama notations for {a.þa·wûN} is still debated.

UKT 210205: Since we cannot rely on human ear to analyze the "human speech", we usually rely on formants which are a measurement of the sound-waves produced by a human.

Consonants : {byæÑ:}

-- ------------ c1, c2 --------------------------- c3, c4 --------------------------- c5

r1: {ka.} ka --- {hka.} kha ------ {ga.} ga -- {Ga.} gha --- {gna.} gna / {ng}
r2: {sa.} cha -- {hsa.} chha ---- {za.} ja -- {Za.} jha ------ {Ña.} gneea / {Ñ}
[affricate: {ca.}, {cha.} ------------ {ja.} , ? {Ja.} ----------- {ña.}/ {ñ} : UKT addn]
r3: {Ta.} ta -- {HTa.} tha -------- {ða.} da -- {Ða.} dha ---- {Na.} na / {N} na ,
r4: {ta.} ta -- {hta.} tha --------- {da.} da -- {Da.} dha ---- {na.} na / {n} na ,
r5: {pa.} pa -- {hpa.} pha ------- {ba.} ba -- {Ba.} bha ---- {ma.} ma / {m} ma ,

r6: {ya.} ya -- {ra.} ra ------------- {la.} la -- {wa.} wa ----- {þa.} tha / {þ}
r6: --------------- {ha.} ha ------------ {La.} lla -- {än} an ------ ---------------
[- to which may be added the diacritic ~~character~~ {än}-sign ]

UKT 201212: In modern Akshara-matrix, approximant row r7, r7c1 and r7c5 are missing. In Carey, {ha.} ha -- {La.} lla -- {än} an , are shown starting from c1 cell to cell 3, leaving the last two cells blank. Another noteworthy point is Carey shows r1c5 as {gna.} gna . I've included the killed-forms of all the c5, r1c5, r2c5, r3c5, r4c5, and r5c5. It is to be noted that F. Carey had failed to notice that Bur-Myan r2 is Palatal-stop, whereas in Mon-Myan and Skt-Dev r2 is Palatal-affricate. Since English speakers can only hear and pronounce the affricates, he had thought that {sa.} is «cha »-- {hsa.} is «chha » . No wonder our {Ña.}/ {Ñ} is lost!

(p001end-p002begin)

Contents of this page

UKT 201227: For the sake of uniformity and unambiguity, keep in mind how the aksharas are arranged in a matrix-form: rows x columns. The first group of well-defined POA (Place of Articulation) {wag~ga.} : 5 x 5 , and the second group of uncertain POA {a.wag~ga.}.

§001. The first twenty-five consonants are divided into five rows ~~classes~~ {pæÑ~sa. wag~ga} .
[Note the Nya-major and Mauk-cha.]
[Row #1 , velar ] - From {ka.} to {gna.}, is the first {ka. wag~ga.};
[Row #2 , palatal] - from {sa.} to {Ña.}, the second {sa. wag~ga.};
[Row #3, retroflex] - form {Ta.} to {Na.}, the third {Ta. wag~ga.};
[Row #4, dental ] - from {ta.} to {na.}, the fourth {ta. wag~ga.} ; and
[Row #5 , labial ] - from {pa.} to {ma.}, the fifth {pa. wag~ga.}.
The rest are called {a.wag~ga.}, or miscellaneous [ approximants] .

§002. The first [c1] and third [c3] akshara ~~letters~~ of each row ~~class~~ are unaspirated, the second [c2] and fourth [c4] aspirated, and the fifth [c5] nasal.

UKT 201227: There is an issue with the term "aspiration" because it gives a wrong impression of the pronunciation of the akshara who are unable to hear our pronunciations clearly because of the restriction imposed on their hearing by their L1 (mother-tongue).
as·pi·ra·tion - n. ¹. Expulsion of breath in speech. ². Linguistics a. The pronunciation of a consonant with an aspirate. b. A speech sound produced with an aspirate. ³. The act of breathing in; inhalation. -- AHTD
Similarly with the term "nasal": velar r1c5 is not nasal when it appears either as onset or coda in a syllable. Palatal r2c5 can be of two different species: the stop {Ña.}/ {Ñ} and the affricate {ña.}/ {ñ}. The stop {Ña.}/ {Ñ} is a non-nasal when it appears as Onset and also as Coda, whilst the affricate {ña.}/ {ñ} is a nasal either as Onset or Coda.

§003. The characters ~~letters~~ are arranged by Magudha [Magadha] grammarians according to their different organs [in the mouth] in the following manner:
   The first row ~~class~~ {ka.wag~ga.}, viz. {ka.} {hka.} {ga.} {Ga.} {gna.}, and the vowels {a.} and {a} , together with {ha.}, are called {kûN~HTa.za}, velar ~~gutturals~~. [UKT ¶ ]
   The second {sa. wag~ga.}, viz. {sa.}, {hsa.}, {za.}, {Za.} and {Ña.} and ; the vowels {I.} and {I} together with {ya.}, are {ta-lu.za}, palatal. [UKT ¶]
   The third {Ta. wag~ga.}, viz. {Ta.}, {HTa.}, {ða.}, {Ða.}, {Na.} and together with {ra.} and {La.} are {moad~Da.za} retroflex ~~linguals~~. [UKT ¶ ]
   The (p002end-p003begin) fourth {ta.wag~ga.}, viz. {ta.}, {hta.}, {da.}, {Da.}, and {na.}, together with {la.} and {Ba.}, are {dûn~ta.za}, dentals. [UKT ¶ ]
   The fifth {pa.wag~ga.}, viz. {pa.}, {hpa.}, {ba.}, {Ba.}, and {ma.}, together with the vowels {U.} and {U} are {AUT~HTa.za}, labials. The vowel {É} is both guttural and palatine; {AU:} is guttural and labial, and {wa.} dental and labial.[UKT ¶ ]

N.B. The vowels {è:} and {AU}, not being used in the Magudha language, are omitted in the above arrangement. However, as they belong to the Burman akshara ~~alphabet~~, and are indispensably necessary in writing the language, they are reckoned with their respective short vowels; in which case {è:} is both a guttural and a palatal, and {AU} guttural and labial.

UKT 201227: The terms "short vowel" and "long vowel" are convenient, but are misleading because of which we usually give the time-duration of the vowel sound in terms of the time it takes you to blink your eye - eye-blinks. Thus, {ka:.} (1/2 blnk) {ka.} (1blnk), {ka} (2blnk), {ka:} (emphatic 2 blnk)

§004. The akshara ~~letters~~ [Semi-nasals and Nasals]
   [r1c5] {gna.}/ {ng}, [Semi-nasal]
   [r2c5] {Ña.}/ {Ñ} - Palatal-stop [Semi-nasal]
---------- {ña.}/ {ñ} - Palatal-affricate [UKT addn]
   [r3c5] {Na.}/ {N}
   [r4c5] {na.}/ {n} [True-nasal]
   [r5c5] {ma.}/ {m} [True-nasal]
are called {nha-la.da.ni.ka. ak~hka.ra.} or nasals.

§005. The vowels are either:
- similar {þa.ma-na.} 'same or similar' [UHS PMD0988] as
---- {a.} (1 blnk) and {a} (2 blnk),
---- {I.} (1 blnk) and {I} (2 blnk),
---- {U.} (1 blnk) and {U} (2 blnk); or
- dissimilar as {a.} and {I.}, {I.} and {U.}, {U.} and {AU:}, &c, viz. every vowel is similar to itself, and to its corresponding long or short vowel.
In the Burman language (p003end-p004begin) {É}, {è:}, {AU:} and {AU} and are always reckoned dissimilar to all others; but in the Magudha [Pali] only {É} and {AU:}.

UKT 201227: When we say there are only 5 vowels in English - a e i o u - we mean that there only 5 characters to represent vowel-sounds. This statement is not strictly true. In Eng-Latin there are about 15 vowel-sounds which can be easily differentiated from each other. It is the same in Bur-Myan which we represent with 12 to 13 characters. In Pali-Myan, there are 8 characters.

§006. The Magudha [Pali] grammarians reckon eight vowels only,
   - three of which are short (1 blnk) {raþ~þa.} [ 'short' - UHS PMD0811c2], as {a.}, {I.} and {U.};
   - the rest are accounted long (2 blnk) {di-Ga.} as {a}, {I},  {U}, {É} and {AU}.
   This remark refers to the writing of the Magudha [Pali] language in the Myanmar-akshara ~~Burman character~~.

§007. [Controversial r6c5 non-nasal] {þa.} is properly the dental sibilant s , agreeing with the Deva-nugura [Devanagari akshara], but by the Burmans it is constantly pronounced like the English th in <thatch>. [UKT ¶]

UKT 201224: In Skt-Dev, there are 3 sibilants श ś /ʃ/ ; ष ṣ /s/; स s /θ/. In place of these three Bur-Myan has only one thibilant {þa.} /θ/. Because of the IPA /θ/, Skt-Dev स s /θ/, is pronounced like the English th in <thatch>. Because the problem is in digraph th , Romabama has to adopt the Old English "Thorn character" þ . Thus, {þa.} /θ/.
Moreover, the IAST (International Alphabet for Sanskrit Transcription for Skt-Dev r4c2 थ «tha» makes the digraph th confusing in BEPS, and there is no option but not to use this digraph at all:
- r4c2: {hta.} थ «tha» /tʰ/
- r6c5: {þa.} स «s» /θ/

There being only this sibilant, two new ones have been introduced into the language, but they are not much known, and are only used by the learned when there is occasion to write the Sungskrita [Sanskrit] language in the Myanmar-akshara ~~Burman characters~~, or by brahmuns [Brahmin] who visit that country. [UKT ¶]
They [ श ś /ʃ/ ; ष ṣ /s/; स s /θ/ ] are the palatine, or sh agreeing with the Skt-Dev ~~Deva-nugura~~ , and the lingual, or sh, agreeing with the Deva-nugura.

UKT 201224: The above last line is confusing on 3 counts:
1. uncertainty of sh in the downloaded pdf page,
2. Carey using old-form of Devanagari, and
3. the old glyphs, and , used by Sanskritists in Burma having no relation to any character of the Bur-Myan script.

In face of the above objections, I've to come up with news glyphs for Romabama, taking Eng-Latin, Pali-Myan and Skt-Dev into consideration. Refer to UHS-PMD page-{za.}. All three are basic aksharas and are stable under the Virama {a·þût}.

§008. [The retroflex of row#7, La'major {La.} is only used in writing words derived from Magudha [Pali].

UKT 201227: The retroflex of row#7 {La.} is known as La-major, and is directly under row#6 {la.} which is known as La-minor. Caution: do not take anything seriously of what the English speakers say of row#6 {la.} when they cannot even pronounce the similar Welsh phoneme. They cannot pronounce the name Llywelyn correctly, whereas a speaker of Bur-Myan - my friend Dr. Maung Di - could easily do (from a personal experience of my friend during his stay in London doing his Ph.D.) . The English <LL> is our Bur-Myan {lhu} from {lha.}.See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd 201227

§009. In words derived from the Magudha [Pali] the {þe:þé:tín} mark ( ) (p004end-p005begin) is used instead of any one of the nasals, but in the Burman it is seldom used, except it be for the final {m}. It is reckoned among the consonants by the Magudha [Pali] grammarians, and is called * {än byíñ~za.na.}, and {þe:þé:tín} or [ ? ] by the Burmans.

UKT 201224: Pali-Myan is derived from Bur-Myan {byæÑ:} in which Nya-major {Ña.} (Palatal-stop) is under Virama-sign. Pali - under the influence of Aus-Asi Lanka - has only Palatal-affricates, because of which {Ñ} breaks down into Nya'minors {ñ~ña.} and we arrive at {byíñ~ña.}. At this point, confusion between Tib-Bur Palatal-stop phonology and Aus-Asi Palatal-affricate phonology comes in and we landed in {byíñ~za.na.}. This is only my conjecture which needs to be confirmed from similar situations.

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On the Pronunciation of Vowels
or Orthoepy /ˈɔːθəʊɛpi/

UKT 210122:

Bur-Myan is a phonetic language, and there is almost one-to-one mapping between Pronunciation Orthoepy /ˈɔːθəʊɛpi/ and Spelling Orthography /ɔːˈθɒɡrəfi/.

The first vowel {a.} अ followed by a pause and without a pause (as in continuous speech) should be differentiated. {a.} found in Pal-Myan is used for negation, whereas {a·} as in {a·ni} "red colour" does not mean negation. In Bur-Myan, negation is {ma.}, e.g. {þi.} "know" and {ma·þi.}.

The pair {a.} अ «a» [vowel duration: 1 eye-blink], and {a} आ «ā» [2 blnk] are now described as allophones , but when Carey was doing his Burmese grammar, the word allophone had not been coined. "The term "allophone" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf [a chemical engineer turned linguist] circa 1929. In doing so, he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. [4] The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology [5] and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition. [6] " - from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone 210101

In Eng-Lat (as well as Skt-Dev), there are only 2 allophones, but in Bur-Myan, there are three: {a.} (1 blnk) (short), {a} (2 blnk) (long), and {a:} (emphatic).

In going from one language to another as in BEPS, you'll find short vowels changing into long especially in versification. Such a change is to make listening and repetition easier. "Euphony involves the use of long vowel sounds, which are more melodious than consonants. Euphony involves the use of harmonious consonants, such as l, m, n, r, and soft f and v sounds. Euphony uses soft consonants or semi-vowels, including w, s, y, and th or wh, extensively to create more pleasant sounds." - Google search 210101

Similar pairs {þa.wûN}

§010. {a.} is pronounced as a in <pan>. Sometimes it is softened so as to have the sound of the first a in <America>; as:
- {ka.hkrín} kagen, a dancing : [wrong example ?]
- {ka·nûn:} kanan, a crab
- {ka·Ñic} kagneet, an iron stylus .

§011. {a} has the sound of a in <path>.

§012. { I. } is sounded as i in <till>. The representative symbol of this letter is frequently combined with the vowel {a.}, thus { i. }, and has the same sound with { I. }, but is never used instead of it.

§013. { I } is pronounced as ee in <eel>. It is the long vowel of the preceding. The symbol of this vowel is frequently combined with {a.} thus {i} , and has the same sound with { I }, but they are not used one for the other.

(p005end-p006begin)

§014. or {U.} is pronounced as oo in <good>. The symbol of the vowel is frequently combined with {a.} thus {u.}, but they cannot be used reciprocally.

§015. { U } is sounded as oo in <cool>. Sometimes the symbol of the vowel { U } is combined with {a.} thus {u}, which cannot be used instead of { U } though it has the same sound.

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Dissimilar pairs {a. þa.wûN}

UKT 201228: We seem to be OK with our study of vowels until we come to the Dissimilar pairs, particularly with Pali-Mya {É} as in English <name>, and {AU:} as in <audience>. Vowels are produced deep in the throat, and there was no way for the ancient phoneticians to observe them. Then comes along the surgery of parts of the throat in treating cancer, and the study of vowels took a new turn with the study of Auditory phonetics. The vowels are produced along with the movement of the tongue in a vowel-space. We then idealized the vowel space as a vowel-quadrilateral. See: Daniel Jones
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician) 201227
But still we cannot relying on our ear only, and we have to go into the study of Acoustic phonetics studying formants. See a paper by R. L. Diehl (2007) in TIL HD-PDF and SD-PDF libraries:
- RLDiehl-AcousAuditoPhonetics<Ô> / Bkp<Ô> (link chk 201228)

§016. {É} the sound is that of the English a in <name>. It also expresses the sound of the digraph ~~diphthong~~ ai in <air>. It is sometimes, though but seldom, written with the symbol joined, thus {é}.

UKT 201226: The above section shows that English speakers cannot differentiate {é} from {è:}. Though Pal-Myan has vowel-letter {É}, the fact that it does not have vowel-letter corresponding {è:} shows that Lankan speakers of Ceylon also have difficulty in differentiating these two sounds. It also shows that Magadhi - the mother-tongue of Gautama Buddha - arrived in northern-Myanmar through over-land routes and not by "the circuitous route of Ceylon" as stated by Carey.

§017. {è:} constantly expresses the sound of the digraph ~~diphthong~~ ei in <their>.

UKT 210101: Though described as "pair" {é} (2 blnk), and {è:} (2 blnk) are not-paired. Yet, in Bur-Myan, each has allophones:
- {é.} (1 blnk), {é} (2 blnk), {é:} (emphatic 2 blnk)
- {è.}, {èý} (2 blnk), {è:} (emphatic 2 blnk)

§018. or {AU:} is constantly pronounced as au in <audience>. The second of the above characters is an abbreviation of the first, and is most commonly used in writing. The symbol of this vowel is sometimes combined with {a.} thus {au:}, but is not used instead of the proper vowel though they are pronounced alike.

§019. {AU} is pronounced as aw in <awful>. Some-(p006end-p007begin)-times also the symbols of this vowel are combined with the {a.} to form this character {au} which has the same sound, but cannot be used instead of {AU}.

N.B. The aksharas ~~letters~~ {É}, {è:}, {AU:} and {AU}, though reckoned among the vowels, are properly diphthongs. [UKT ¶]

UKT 201226: I dispute that they are diphthongs. They are monophthongs. Moreover, {AU:} and {AU}, taken as a pair is a matching pair {þa.wûn} differing only in emphasis. Because of which in BEPS, I've substituted {AU:} withj {ou}. With {ou}, I can handle English words such as <now> {nou}.

The forms {au:} and {au} are but seldom used instead of their original characters, as
- {auk} below , is never written
- {aún} conquer , is never written

§020. [Single-dot above] - this mark has the sound of an in <pan> .

UKT 201226: The above statement is incorrect. For example {kûn} in my grandson's name Kan Tun is pronounced with /ʌ/ not /æ/.
<bun> - /bʌn/ - DJPD16-074-c1
<pan> - /pæn/ - DJPD16-394c3

§021. [Double-dot] - is pronounced as ah . This mark is never used in Magudha [Pali] language, and merely as an accent in the Burman. It is called {wi.þiz~za.ni.} .

UKT 201226: Double-dot , known as {wic~sa.pauk} in Bur-Myan is used differently in
Bur-Myan and Mon-Myan: {ka:} (emphatic 2 eye-blnk) and {ka:.} (1/2 blnk), respectively.

§022. {o} is a monophthong ~~diphthong~~ , and will be taken notice of hereafter.
(p007end-p008begin)

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On the Pronunciation of Consonants

UKT 210114: In Phonology, whenever we have to give examples of consonants, it is always more illustrative to give the PTK consonants and their killed forms: {pa.}/ {p}, {ta.}/ {t}, {ka.}/ {k}. However, keep in mind that English has no tenuis consonants, and that PTK consonants are tenuis, and that you must make allowances for this fact.

row#1

§023. [Ka'major r1c1 tenuis] {ka.} has the sound of k in <king>, [r1c2 voiceless] {hka.} the aspirated letter , is pronounced something like the conjunct sound of k and h in <brick-house>.

UKT 210101: See my note on Aspiration and other misunderstanding on Bur-Myan language in BG-indx.htm
Giving the similarity with <brick-house> is convenient, but not legitimate, because <brick> is one phoneme, and <house> is a separate one. Failure of the English speakers to understand that there is no {ka.} sound, but only the {hka.} sound in English is one of the reasons that they had hit on the idea of Aspiration. Another reason might be due to their reliance on the Pali-pronunciation as spoken in Ceylon which is now called Sri Lanka.

The pair {ka.} and {hka.} are now described as allophones , but when Carey was doing his Burmese grammar, the word allophone had not been coined. "The term "allophone" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf [a chemical engineer turned linguist] circa 1929. In doing so, he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. [4] The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology [5] and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition. [6] " - from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone 210101

In IPA notation this allophonic pair would be given as {ka.}/ {k} /k/ and {hka.}/ {hk} /kʰ/.

§024. [Ga'minor r1c3 voiced] {ga.} is sounded as g in <gad-fly>. [Ga'major r1c4 deep-H] {Ga.} its aspirate, has the conjunct of g and h in <log-house>. [UKT: another inappropriate example citing g and h which are not in conjunction.]

§025. [The Semi-nasal r1c5] {gna.} has the sound of gn .

UKT 201226: The semi-nasal {gna.} is a non-nasal in the onset, but becomes nasal in the coda as {ng}. I remember {gnak} 'bird' being spelled with non-nasal gn when we were young before WWII. Then my good friend U (Dr.) Tun Tint of MLC disputes me: he insists is always spelled with ng . Now, I can cite F. Carey.

Phoneticians are more interested in onset consonants than on the codas. In Bur-Myan the coda-consonant seems to act strongly on the nuclear-vowel, producing marked effect in the rhime. I'm using this effect to solve the problem of not-finding a suitable character for representing the semi-nasal consonant r1c5 {gna.}/ {ng} .

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row#2

§026. [Palatal-stop r2c1 tenuis] {sa.} [when killed: {c} has the power of ch in <church>. [r2c2 voiceless] {hsa.} is the aspirate of the above, and is sounded as chh in <much-haste> were the two words combined.

UKT 201228: Eng-Lat does not have Palatal-stops. What it has are the Palatal-affricates, which we have to spelled as {ya.pín.}-medials as {kya.}, {hkya.}, {gya.} . Remember, medials are unstable under Virama {a·þût}. We do not have ch , chh , j as basic aksharas.

Mistaking the Palatal-stops which has almost no element of /s/ in coda {c} for Palatal-affricates which are hissers and hushers having is the first major misunderstanding of Bur-Myanmar sounds. Moreover, English speakers fail to understand that they have no tenuis-voiceless (unless preceded by dental /s/), but only ordinary-voiceless, and it is {hkya.} - not {kya.} - that is in <church>. Romabama has to invent new glyphs for the hissing sounds:

Palatal-S: {sa.}/ {c} - as in <sick>
Dental-S: {Sa.}/ {S} - as in <sister>

After recognizing the presence of Dental-S, Romabama came up with a whole class of new consonant-onsets, and can handle English words like <spin>, <stingy>, <skin>, <smile>, <snake>, <slow>, and <sweep>, with {Spa.}, {Sta.}, {Ska.}, {Sma.}, {Sna.}, {Sla.}, and {Swa.}

§027. [Palatal-stop r2c3] {za.} is pronounced as j in <jar>; and its aspirate [r2c4] {Za.} has the sound of ge and h in <college-hall>.

UKT 201228: Bur-Myan {Za.} looks like derived from {sa.} and {ya.pín}-sign . Its equivalent in Mon-Myan {Zé} looks like derived from {za.} and {ya.pín}-sign . It is more confusing in Skt-Dev which uses a conjunct - Pseudo-Za ज ् ञ --> ज्ञ , in spite of having the regular {Za.} झ

§028. [Semi-nasal Nya-major r2c5] {Ña.} properly written {ña.}. [So - Carey thinks that {Ña.} is not proper! What a lopsided view thanks to the Pali-ists with whom he must have been working.] The first character, i.e. {Ña.} is commonly accounted a double letter [i.e. a horizontal-conjunct], though generally used for the single.

UKT 201228: It is probable - I insist probable - since the Pagan period - the Pali-Lankan propagandists are hard at work trying to establish that the true occupier of cell r2c5 is Nya-minor, and that Nya-major is just a conjunct.

Pali-Myan: {Ñ} is unstale and breaks down into --> ~ {ñ~ña} . e.g. in Pyin-nya - the word for "education" as: {píñ~ña}

Bur-Myan: {Ñ} is stable. e.g. in the word "Nay-pyi-daw" the capital city of Myanmarpré as: {né-præÑ-tau}

For BEPS languages, I've no choice but to leave r2c5 to Nya-minor, and move Nya-major {Ña.}/ {Ñ} down to Fricatives by the side of {ya.}/ {ý} which actually belongs to Velar.

It is important to note that though in the akshara-matrix, nasals are grouped together with {wag}-consonants, they seem to form a group by themselves as a column-5 vertical group. That the nasals are quite different from the {wag}-consonants are recognized in the IPA table, by placing them in a separate row below that of the plosive-stops.

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row#3

§029. [The retroflex r3c1 tenuis] {Ta.} has the sound of t in <lent>. [r3c2 voiceless] {HTa.} is its corresponding aspirate, and has nearly the power of the conjunct sound th in <pent-house>.

UKT 210101: Don't mix-up the basic-consonant {HTa.} which is pronounceable with horizontal-conjunct {T~HTa.} which is mute. is actually . It becomes pronounceable when preceded by a syllable such as {ku.}, then it becomes {koaT~Hta.} which is written {koaT~Hta.} "leprosy". Since, {koaT~Hta.} is Pali, the disease leprosy is usually written as {koaT~Hta.nu-na} . (p008end-p009begin)

§030. [The retroflex r3c3 voiced] {ða.} has the sound of d in <dart>. [r3c4 deep-H] {Ða.} is the aspirate, and has the sound of dh in <old-house>.

UKT 201228: The phoneme r3c3 {ða.} ड seems to be important in Skt-Dev. It is probable that Sanskrit formerly did not have {gna.}/ {ng} in its akshara-matrix and also in its vocabulary. There are two more aksharas which were originally absent in Skt-Dev. It just borrows

{ða.} ड + dot --> ङ
{wa.} व + diagonal --> ब
{pa.} प + diagonal --> ष

Such borrowings seem to be common among old Sanskrit phoneticians:

{ga.} + dot --> श
{pa.} + dot --> ष
See UHS PMD-p.za.

It is also note worthy that though Mon-Myan has a lot of words using {ða.}, Bur-Myan has almost no use for it.

§031. [Retroflex r3c5 nasal] {Na.} is pronounced as n .

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row#4

UKT 201230: To explain the following entries further, I'll be using Skt-Dev aksharas and IAST transliterations in «...». The aksharas involved are:

{ta.} त «ta» - tenuis ; {hta.} थ «tha» - vl ;
{da.} द «da» - vd; {Da.} ध «dha» - deep-H.

And remember English has no tenuis. What they have is ordinary voiceless (vl). They cannot differentiate /t/ and /tʰ/.

§032. [Dental r4c1 tenuis] {ta.} त «ta», is the dental t , and is produced by applying the tongue [tip] to the [root of] upper teeth. [r4c2 voiceless] {hta.} थ «tha» is the aspirate of the foregoing akshara ~~letter~~.

UKT 201229: Skt-Dev equivalent of {hta.} थ «tha» /tʰ/, is the cause of confusion of Bur-Myan {þa.} /θ/ which is commonly transcribed as <tha> on the international scene. It has led me to adopt the Old English "thorn" þ for {þa.}. Theravada Buddhism should be transcribed as Hteravada or Þeravad, but then nobody would know what it is!

§033. [Dental r4c3 voiced] {da.} द «da», is the dental d , and is likewise expressed by applying the tongue to the upper teeth. [r4c4 deep-H] {Da.} ध «dha» is the aspirate of the above akshara letter.

UKT 201230: It is strange that English speakers were not aware of movements of the throat (area of the Adam's apple) during the production of English t /t/ (no vibration), and d /d/ (noticeable vibration). Then they would have {hta.} थ «tha» /tʰ/ - (no vibration) as voiceless, and {da.} द «da» (voiced); and {Da.} ध «dha» as deep-H (for Bur-Myan). It is important to point out that in Mon-Myan {Dé} ध «dha» it is soft and not deep-H.

§034. [Dental r4c5 nasal] {na.} is pronounced as the English n .

UKT 210102: Counting the nasals - c5 column - in the akshara-matrix, from top to bottom, {na.} is the first English nasal.

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row#5

§035. [Bilabial r5c1 tenuis] {pa.} is sounded like p in <path>, and its aspirate [r5c2 voiceless] {hpa.} has the sound of ph in <pharisee>, or f in <father>.

UKT 201231: Take note of difference POA in the bilabials and labio-dentals in the above entry. Bur-Myan words are strictly bilabials involving both lips, but Eng-Lat and Skt-Dev they are labio-dentals involving the tip of the upper-front lip and lower-lip. In place of Bur-Myan bilabial {hpa.}, Eng-Lat and Skt-Dev use labio-dental {fa.}. That {hpa.} has the sound of f in <father> is totally wrong.

§036. [Bilabial r5c3 voiced] {ba} ब «ba» is sounded like b in <bad>; [r5c4 deep-H] {Ba.} it its corresponding aspirate.

UKT 210101: Though in Bur-Myan c4-column consonants are all deep-H -voiced - counterparts of ordinary-voiced c3-column consonants - they are all "soft" in Mon-Myan. This may also be a source of confusion for English speakers studying Burmese grammar in matter of aspirates, because they have assumed that Bur-Myan without a written script had to borrow from the Mon-Myan, who themselves had to borrow from a southern-Indian script.

§037. [Bilabial r5c5 nasal] {ma.} is pronounced like the English m in <man>.

UKT 210102: Counting the nasals - c5 column - in the akshara-matrix, from top to bottom, {ma.} is the second English nasal. Taking Bur-Myan and Eng-Lat together, {ma.} is the last nasal. It is also, the first or one of the first sounds uttered by a human-infant learning to speak. In general, each of all nasals has 3 coda-allophones in Burmese, and 2 coda-allophones in English, differing in vowel lengths:
- ;
The akshara {ma.} is the negation-prefix in Bur-Myan, but its counterpart in Pal-Myar is {a.}

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row#6

UKT : Though Approximants have their own row as row#6, the columns numbers are quite arbitrary. There are only 33 basic aksharas in Bur-Myan matrix, but 35 in Mon-Myanmar, making the column numbers arbitrary. What I'm giving below are those numbers in Bur-Myan matrix.

§038. [Approximant r6c1 ] {ya.} has the sound of y in <yard> .

UKT 210102: {ya.} is the first of the 5 medial-formers of Bur-Myan, e.g. {kya.}, {kya}, {kya:} .
As a medial-former {ya.} is known as {ya.pín.} with the sign .

§039. [Approximant r6c2 ] {ra.} is pronounced like r in <rat>. It also has the sound of y in <yard> [in Bur-Myan]

UKT 210102: It is only in Bur-Myan of the mainland dialect that {ra.} has the sound of y in <yard>. In Rakhine dialect and in Pal-Myan, there is a definite rhotic or "rolling" sound and is marked as {Ra.}. In Skt-Dev the rhoticity is at maximum. (p009end-p010begin)

§040. [Approximant r6c3 ] {la.} is pronounced like l in <latter>

UKT 210102: Never trust English speakers to give you the correct pronunciation of {la.}: they can't pronounce even pronounce the Welsh words like "Llywelyn" right! According to my friend Dr. Maung Di, it is {lhya.} > {lhya.} > {lhyu} and his Welsh professor confirms that my friend's pronunciation is correct.

§041. [Approximant r6c4] {wa.} is sounded like w in <wart>.

UKT 210102: There is confusion between w {wa.} and v {va.} in German and Hindi (Sanskrit) languages. The glyph for {va.} is a Romabama invention to handle BEPS languages. Bur-Myan uses bilabials whereas Sanskrit uses labio-dentals.
There is another aspect of {wa.} that usually goes unnoticed - spreading or rounding of the lips during articulation. See §058.

§042. [Approximant r6c5 - thibilant] {þa.} has both the sounds of the English <th> [different from Skt-Dev. «tha»] as expressed in words <thatch> and <thee>.

UKT 210102: Bur-Myan is a Thibilant language. Thibilant languages are quite rare. Eng-Lat has both Thibilants and Sibilants. The Sibilants are marked by "hushers" e.g. श , and "hissers" e.g. ष .

Romabama has to invent two new glyphs to handle the husher श as {sha.}/ {sh}, and hisser ष as {Sa.}/ {S} to handle BEPS languages. These being basic aksharas can be under the Virama.

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row#7

§043. [Approximant r7c2 ] {ha.} has the sound of h in <hat>.

UKT 210102: Let's listen to Cockney or East London accent which has no h sound, and watch clips from My Fair Lady in TIL HD-VIDEO and SD-VIDEO
• Phonetics techniques in time of Henry Sweet
- zIntroEngMyFairLady1964<Ô> / Bkp<Ô> (link chk 201117)
• Movie trailer
- zMyFairLady1964Trailer1<Ô> / Bkp<Ô> (link chk 201117)

§044. [Approximant r7c3 retroflex La'major] {La.} is sounded as l .

§045. [The cell r7c4 in modern akshara-tables is occupied by {a.} which is not a negation-prefix {a.} as in Pali-Myan. Bur-Myan negation-prefix is {ma.}. Carey has placed the Dot-above {þé:þé:tín}-sign in r7c4 and has stated:] has the sound of n in <an> .

§046. The [following 10] consonants:

-------- c1, c2 ---------------- c3, c5
r1: --- ---, --- ---- - ------ ---, {Ga.}
r2: ---- ---, --- --------------- ---, {Za.}
r3: {Ta.}, {HTa.} --- {ða.}, {Ða.}
r4: ---- ---, --- ---------- {da.}, {Da.}
r5: --- ---, --- ----------- {ba.}, ---
----------------------------- {La.}

are chiefly used in writing words derived from the Magudha (Pali), and are but seldom used in the Burman language. [However, some are routinely used in Mon-Myan language.]
Among the above {Ga.}, {Ta.}, {Ta.}, {ða.}, {Ða.}, {ba.}, and {La.} are never used as initials [onsets] in words purely Burman; {Za.} is used only twice, and {da.} and {Da.} but seldom. These letters are often used as initials in the Magudha language.

§047. The Burmans cannot pronounce the aksharas ~~letters~~ {ra.} and {þa.} when they are the initials of a compound consonant. [UKT: issue 1] In this case therefore they are generally mute. [UKT: issue 2] (p010end-p011begin)

N.B. Nearly all the consonants and the symbols of the vowels are called by different names, which are here omitted. In repeating the akshara ~~alphabet~~ the Burmans make scarcely any distinction between the pronunciation of the aspirated [c2 voiceless] and unaspirated [c1 tenuis] aksharas ~~letters~~. [UKT: issue 3]

UKT 210103: I've 3 issues with regard to §47.
• Issue 1: What does Carey means by the "initials of a compound consonant. Obviously with {ra.}, he must mean {rwa.} and {rha.}. With {rwa.}, how we pronounce is correct. There are 3 allophones, {rwa.} (1blnk) 'crisp', {rwa} (2 blnk) 'village', {rwa:} (emphatic) - part of {hso:rwa:}. If he has meant {rha.} which we pronounce /ʃ/, he is correct - because the medial (compound consonant} can only generate /ɹ/ not /ʃ/.
With {þa.} which is a thibilant, if he had meant that it should have been a sibilant , then his observation is dead wrong.
• Issue 2: I do not know what he means "they are generally mute". He needs to cite examples.
• Issue 3: To this day Westerners, cannot "hear" the difference in sound that we make in pronouncing {ka.} and {hka.}.

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Chapter 01 :

Section 02 : Combing the Aksharas (vowels or consonants) with other Aksharas (vowels or consonants)
Of Compounding Aksharas Letters

Romabama Akshara Compounding Processes

UKT 210204: The term "compounding letters" mean combining two aksharas into one. In Romabama we have the following processes: The can be:
Process#1 - vowel + another vowel, e.g., {i.} + {u.} --> {o}
Process#2 - consonant + a vowel, e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {i.} --> {ki.}
Process#3 - consonant + another consonant, e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {ya.} --> {kya.}
With consonant and an ordinary consonant we can get a mute combination known as conjunct such as {k~ya.}, or with an approximant called a medial former, we can get a medial such as {kya.} which is pronounceable.

§048. The vowel {a.} is inherent in every consonant.

UKT 210104: The vowel, {a.} अ «a», that is present in both Mranmakshara (BEPS coined-word for Myanmar-akshara) and Devanagari script is known as the "inherent vowel" {mwé-hkän þa.ra.}. It is this vowel that differentiates the Akshara-syllable system of writing and the Alphabet-Letter system. For example, {ka.} is a syllable and is pronounceable, whereas k /k/ is just a letter and is mute. Not only Carey (of 2 centuries past), but also many linguists of the present fail to make this distinction - making Bur-Myan language difficult to learn. We can use a simple tool, the Viram {a·þût} "vowel-killer", to turn an akshara into a letter:

{ka.} क + {a·þût} --> {k} क् /k/

§049. Consonants may be combined with either the vowels or consonants. The compound character thus formed is termed {yoat~ta. ak~hka.ra.}, or a compound akshara ~~letter~~ .

UKT 210104: Romabama compounding processes
Process#2 - consonant + a vowel, e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {i.} --> {ki.}
Process#3 - consonant + another consonant, e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {ya.} --> {kya.}

§050. When a vowel follows a consonant in the same syllable, it loses its original form, and is represented by a symbol, [e.g. Ya'pín sign ]

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Romabama compounding process #2 : consonant + vowel
Of compounding the Vowels with a Consonant

UKT 210205: See: Romabama Akshara Compounding Process#2
- consonant + a vowel, e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {i.} --> {ki.}

§051. The following table represents the symbolical characters of the respective vowels, the vowels combined with a consonant, and the power of each when thus combined:

(p011end-p012begin)
UKT 210104: Page 012 opens with the table presented on the right. This table gives the allophones of the vowels, e.g. {a.} (vowel-duration 1 eye-blink), {a} (2 blnk), and {a:} (3 blink). In the last line of Carey's table, there is a mix-up between Bur-Myan and Mon-Myan.

Bur-Myan : {ka.}, {ka}, {ka:} // {kaa.} (1/2 blnk}
Mon-Myan: {ka:.}, {ka.}, {ka}

The akshara नः is present in the last line of Skt-Dev Gayatri Mantra BkCndl<))
After listening Gayatri Mantra many times, I came to realize that, नः is equal to
Mon-Myan {na:.}. It is interesting to see how "visarga" {wic~sa.} विसर्गः is used differently in Skt-Dev, Mon-Myan, and Bur-Myan:
Mon-Myan {ka:.} (1/2 blnk} = Bur-Myan {kaa.} (1/2 blnk},
and {na:.} = {naa.}

When I was a child going to a vernacular school in Kungyangon town, we have to recite, firstly with basic consonant {ka.} /k/ - the allophone of /k/ with vowel-duration = 1 eye-blink. :

{ka.} <ka>, {ka} <ka> ; {ki.} <ki >, {ki} <kee>; {ku.} <koo>, {ku} <koo>;
{ké} <ke>, {kè:} <ki>; {kau.} <kau>, {kau} <kau>; {kän} <kan>, {ka:} <?>

Then, we proceed to basic consonant {hka.} /kʰ/ - the second allophone of /k/ with vowel-duration = 2 blnk:
{hka.}, {hka}; {hki.}, {hki}; {hku.}, {hku};
{hké}, {hkè:}, {hkau.}, {hkau}; {hkän}, {hka:}

You can now jump to medial consonants - §090

§052. The second symbolical character of the vowel {a} [ Mauk'cha sign ] is used only in junction with the akshara ~~letters~~ {hka.}, {ga.}, {gna.}, {da.}, {pa.} and {wa.}, because the first character cannot be joined with them without making them assume the form of other akshara ~~letters~~ .

UKT 210104: §052 is stated with a rhyme in modern terms - a mnemonic - which I've named Miss Turkey Toothsome: {hkin-gu-gnau:} ("Khin" is a name given to a girl; "gu" reminds me of the sound made by turkeys; "gnau" generally refers to front-teeth jutting out.) The second phrase {dau:poän-wa.} means the opening or the mouth of something usually a river. If the aim is to prevent "making them assume the form of other akshara", we should include other aksharas formed from single-circles, such as {sa.}, {hpa.}, {Da.}, etc. So I've set a simple rule: use Mauk'cha for one-circle akshara, and Weik'cha for two-circle akshara.

§053. The vowels {au:} and {au} [ (au:.}] are for the most part written with their respective symbols affixed to the compound character {AU.} *: thus, {AU:} and {AU}. (p012end-p013begin). When these vowels come in conjunction, the akshara ~~letter~~ {AU.} is rejected, and merely the symbols and are retained; as {kau:}, {hkau}.

§054. Every consonant may receive a vowel after it in the above manner. ex. {ki.}, {gi}, {dé}, {hau:}

§055. The consonant with its annexed vowel is considered as one syllable ~~letter~~, and pronounced as such. ex. {ki.} is not read as ka-i , but ki .

§056. The absence of the inherent vowel {mwé-hkän þa·ra.} {a.} is denoted by the mark [ {tän-hkûn} "flag"] placed over a consonant, thus {k}, {L} .

UKT 210105: The counterpart of {tän-hkûn} in Devanagari is ् . Thus, {k} क् . It is now the same as English letter k /k/ . It is no longer the akshara.

§057. Whenever the symbol of any vowel or consonant is united to another consonant, it invariably occupies the place of the inherent vowel {mwé-hkän þa·ra.} {a.}. ex. [wrong example, or {kya.}?], {kra.}, {kwa.}, {k~ka.}

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Romabama Akshara Compounding Process#3
- consonant + another consonant,

e.g. {ka.} + {a·þût} + {ya.} --> {kya.}

§058. The consonants [Medial formers: those that can produce intermediate sounds. Medials are monophthongs.]
{ya.}, {wa.}, {ra.}, and {ha.} are expressed by the following symbols: (p013end-p014begin)

UKT 210106: There are only 33 basic consonants that can generate derivative phonemes with different sounds. However by con-joining the 33 with 4 Approximant consonants - {ya.}, {wa.}, {ra.}, {ha.} - we can still generate intermediate sounds. With the inclusion of English phonemes into BEPS languages, we have to add one more Approximant, {la.}. This approximant was used in the Pagan period, but has been dropped in mainland Burmese. However, {la.} as a medial former still exists in Dawei dialect. Carey has listed only 4 used in the mainland dialect in his list given on the right.

Each class of medials have its own name:

¤ Ya'pin - with {ya.} - {ya.pín.} "raised up by {ya.}" with symbol . If the conjunction is not complete, it remains a plain conjunct which is a diphthong. It is then known as {ya.hswè:} "hanging {ya.}" with symbol .

Thus "K-Y-A-W" in my name is - {ka.ya.pín.} {kya.} a monophthong. But English speakers and Hindi speakers can only say - {ka.ya.hswè:} {k~ya.} (with a schwa unconsciously added after k) as a diphthong, mis-pronouncing my name. Finally they call me "J-O-E", and I became Joe K. Tun.

¤ Ra'ric - with {ra.} - {ra.ric} "wrapped around by {ra.}" with symbol / . The medial sound produced for mainland dialect has no rhoticity, and sounds like {ya.pín.} mentioned above. But in Pali and in Rakhine dialect, the medial sound has noticeable rhoticity, and Romabama differentiates the two with the length of the hood as /

¤ Wa'hswè - with {wa.} - {wa.hswè:} "hanging {wa.}". With some consonants, such as {ka.}, it produces a monophthong and is marked as {kwa.}. But some can say it only as an ordinary conjunct as {k~wa.} - a diphthong.}. Romabama differentiates the two as by changing the shape of the {wa.} that is hanging. In {kwa.} the hanging {wa.} has "triangular" shape, whereas in {k~wa.}, it has the full rounded shape.

UKT 210131: Ya'pin and Wa'hswè, because of the difference in pronunciation of medial formers {ya.} and {wa.}, have different effects in terms of "spread-roundness" on the basic consonants. Ya'pin {ya.pín.} is pronounced with spread-lips, whilst Wa'hswè is pronounced with round-lips.

¤ Ha'hto - with {ha.} - {ha.hto:} "propelled by being poled (as a boat in shallow water) by {ha.}". It is then known as {ha.hto:} with symbol .

§059. The symbol of {ha.}, in words purely Burman, is affixed to all the nasals, besides which it is affixed to only {ya.}, {ra.}, {wa.}, {þa.} and {La.} [?], and the compounds formed by their combination with other letters, which will be mentioned hereafter. But in words derived from Magudha [Pali] it may be affixed to any character.

UKT 210105: §059 is complex because it embodies several ideas into a short paragraph. I'll have to take it apart as:
1. The symbol [Ha'hto sign ] of {ha.} ह «ha», in words purely Burman, is affixed to all the nasals [ {gna.}, {Ña.}, {Na.}, {na.}, {ma.}]

The products are recognized by Peter Ladefoged (1925-2006), more than a century later, as voiceless nasals of Burmese
{gnha.}, {Ñha.}, {Nha.}, {nha.}, {mha.}

2. [The Ha'hto, in words purely Burman,] is affixed to only {ya.}, {ra.}, {wa.}, {þa.} and {La.},
3. [The Ha'hto, in words purely Burman, is affixed to] the compounds formed by their combination with other letters, which will be mentioned hereafter.

§060. [Medials can be produced by a combination of medial formers. This sub-section will describe two combinations: Ya-wa and Ra-wa.] {ya.} and {wa.}, also {ra.} and {wa.}, when united are expressed by the ~~following~~ compound symbols [shown on right]:

UKT 210107: Romabama names of medial-formers. See also MLC-BO1986, page- {HTa.}
Ya-wa medial-former, Ya'pin-wa'hswè - - {ya.pín.wa.hswè:}
Ra-wa medial-former, Ra'ric-wa'hswè - - {ra.ric.wa.hswè:}

Ya-ha medial-former, Ya'pin-ha'hto - - {ya.pín.ha.hto:}
Ra-ha medial-former, Ra'ric-ha'hto - - {ra.ric.ha.hto:}
Wa-ha medial-former, Wa'hswè-ha'hto - - {wa.hswè:ha.hto:}

Ya-wa-ha medial-former, Ya'pin-wa'hswè-ha'hto - -- {ya.pín.wa.hswè:ha.hto:}
Ra-wa-ha medial-former, Ra'ric-wa'hswè-ha'hto - -- {ra.ric.wa.hswè:ha.hto:}

§061. Two or more consonants may be combined so as to be pronounced without an intervening vowel, as {h~ma.}, {þ~ma.}, {kywa.}, {hkywa.}, {ñhwa.}, {rhwa.}, {lhwa.} (p014end-p015begin)

UKT 210122: In the above {h~ma.}, {þ~ma.} are probably mistakes. They are probably {hwa.} and {þwa.} .

§062. When an aspirated akshara ~~letter~~ is doubled [i.e. stacked], the first [i.e. the top one] is changed for its corresponding unaspirated akshara ~~letter~~, as
- {k~hka.} [from: ], {c~hsa.} [from : -], {z~Za.} [from: -], {ð~Ða.}[from -] [cf. ] , {T~Hta.} [from: ], {t~hta.} [from: -], {p~hpa.}, {b~Ba.}

UKT 210107: Stacked consonants are mute, because the hidden viram on the upper consonant. Now, remember English has no tenuis consonant, which makes my analysis of Carey's observations somewhat iffy: what if Carey had known this limitation of English.

If the stacking is vertical it is known as Pat'hsin {paaHT.hsín.} in {k~hka.}, {c~sa.}, {c~hsa.}, {t~hta.}, {p~hpa.}, {b~Ba.}.

However, if the conjunction is horizontal as in {T~Hta.} and {ð~Ða.} it should be Paat'twè {paaHT.twè:}. The terms are derived from Pali {pa.Li} with {La.} changing into "look-alike" {HTa.}. You'll notice that the consonants involved, {Ta.}, {HTa.}, {ða.}, and {La.} are retroflex, and the circular-glyph looks like standing on pedestals. This suggests to me that they had belonged to a written script which preceded the present Myanmar akshara.

§063 does not mention 2 other stacked consonants such as {c~sa.} (from tenuis), and {m~ma.} (from nasals}. I'll deal only with {m~ma.} which appears in words like Kamma {kûm~ma.} (Pali), and Karma {Sanskrit}. For meanings look into:
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism 210107

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Nasals : Dot-above {þé:þé:tín}] sign
- the instrument for nasalization

UKT 210205: All the 33 consonants can be nasalized with Dot-above {þé:þé:tín}] sign . However of the vowels, only the short vowels, {raþ~þa. þa.ra.} can be nasalized, e.g. , , . (Checked with U ZawTiKa of ZéYyaThuKha monastery, Sangyaung, Yangon).

§063. The [Dot-above {þé:þé:tín}] sign represents any of the nasals.

§064. The [ {þé:þé:tín}] sign written above an initial consonant, is sometimes mute [changed over to schwa], as {tän-hka:} "a door" pronounced as {ta·ga:}; {tän-hsa} "an ornament" pronounced as { ta·za}.
In some instances, however, [ {þé:þé:tín}] is pronounced as [in] {htän} "a place" ; {lhän} "spear" [ not {lhûn}]

§065. When {la.} is the first member of a compound, and occupies the place of [ {þé:þé:tín}], it is pronounced like ; as {loän-la.};
when written as , it is not pronounced loolla , but longa . No particular rules are laid down for these changes.

UKT 210107: I don't know what Carey meant by longa . If he had meant longa , where ng is killed {ng}, the word becomes {lu.lín} from which one of the {la.} may be dropped.
In modern Burmese, in words like {bol} "army officer", killed {l} is not pronounced and the word sound like {bo} - something similar to dropping a {la.}.

§066. The nasals, {gna.}/ {ng} excepted, are never compounded with any letter, besides those of their respective classes, as:
[r2, palatal] - {Ñ~sa.}, {ñ~za.},
[r3, retroflex] - {N~HTa.}, {N~ða.},
[r4, dental ] - {n~ta.}, {n~da.}, {n~Da.},
[r5, labial] - {m~pa.}, {m~Ba.}. (p015end-p016begin)

UKT 210109: In §066, we see in the example for r2 palatal, a mix up stop and affricate. See my note on the Mixing up of Palatals resulting in the disappearance of Nya-major, and the misunderstanding of the words Knowledge and Wisdom. As an example, "how to build the Atomic Bomb is Knowledge, but whether to use it or not is Wisdom.

§067. [The r1c5, semi-nasal], {gna.}/ {ng}, with the mark [ {tän-hkûn}-sign] above it, thus {ng}, is generally placed over the consonants of its own class [r1 - velar], and the miscellaneous aksharas, instead of [dot-above] [UKT ¶]

[ The sign is known as {kín:si:} literally "ridden by a centipede".]

thus {män-ga.la} [wrong pronunciation of "auspiciousness" due to Indian influence], is written {mïn-ga.la] auspiciousness ~~goodness, welfare~~ ; {ín~kri} a coat [shirt] [modern sp {ín-kyi}]; {ta.nïn~ga.nwé} Sunday ; {ta.nïn~la} Monday.

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Conjuncts or stacked consonants :
Pali conjuncts {paaHT.hsín.}- {paaHT-twè:}

UKT 210205:
See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava_script 210205
[UKT - the word «pal~la.wa.} transposed aks-to-aks to Myanmar script gives: , making the uninitiated think that Myanmar script is descended from Pallava - a south Indian script.]

§068. All the consonants may be stacked ~~doubled~~ [resulting in mute conjuncts - not pronounceable medials: the top member being a killed consonant], as: [stacking the same akshara]
- {k~ka.}, {g~ga.},
- {c~sa.}, {z~za.}, {ñ~ña.} [= ],
- {T~Ta.}, {N~Na.},
- {t~ta.}, {d~da.}, {n~na.},
- {p~pa.}, {b~ba.}, {m~ma.},
- {l~la.}, or {þ~þa.}.

UKT 210206: Different akshara may also be stacked: e.g. {T~HTa.}. In these stacked conjuncts, the {a·þût} is not shown, making the pair into a single character .

§069. The vowel {U.} [ {u.}] of an onset ~~initial consonant~~ is often pronounced like {a.}. Ex.
- {pu.hso:} a cloth, garment [ pronun. {pa·hso}];
- {pu.hsic} the knee-bone or joint [pronun. {pa·hsic}];
- {pu.lè:} a pearl [pronun. {pa·lè:};
- {ku.la:} a stranger, a foreigner [pronun. {ka·la:} ]. This deviation occurs but seldom. (p016end-p017begin)

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Author's footnotes

Cp001-fn01 - The proper word is Mrunma [ {mrûn-ma}: Carey reproduced the Weik'cha faithfully] - Go back Cp001-fn01b

Cp001-fn02 - In writing Burman words with English letters , the italics are to be pro-(cont. at bottom of p002)- nounced short, and the Roman letters long, i.e., a is sounded as in father, a as in man , and when final as in America ; e as a name , i as el in their , i as in till , ee as in read , oo as in good, oo as in cool , and u as in bat . In repeating the akshara ~~alphabet~~ the inherent vowel is invariably pronounced as in pan . Go back Cp001-fn02b

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UKT notes

The author F. Carey (1786-1822)

- Felix Carey, by D.G.E. Hall, Rangoon, Burma, in The Journal of Religion, vol12, no.4, Oct1932

In that monumental collection of epitaphs, the Dictionary of National Biography , in the compilation of which, it is said, the motto "No flowers by request" was circulated from the editorial chair for the guidance of contributors, there occurs one epitaph, brief and terse beyond almost all of its fellows. It is to the memory of Felix Carey, born 1786, the eldest son of the great Baptist missionary pioneer, William Carey, and dying at Serampore [West Bengal, India] on November 10, 1822.

UKT 201206: Rev. Adoniram Johnson, did meet William Carey is mentioned in The Man Who Gave the Bible to the Burmese, on Adoniram and Ann Judsons https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/the-man-who-gave-the-bible-to-the-burmese 201206

Adoniram knew he would meet the pioneer English Baptist missionary William Carey when he arrived in India, and in fact he carried a letter of introduction. While at sea, therefore, he carefully studied the New Testament in an effort to understand the differences between the Congregationalists and Baptist views on baptism. [UKT ¶]

Although his plan was to refute the Baptist teaching, the opposite happened: He became convinced that believers' baptism was correct. Though painfully aware that this would mean cutting ties with friends and supporters, Ann agreed. After the Judsons arrived in India, they decided to have Carey's associate William Ward baptize them by immersion. Luther Rice, who had had similar doubts, was immersed several months later.

... ... ...

Being gifted linguists, Ann and Adoniram quickly learned to speak Burmese, and Adoniram spent years studying the structure of the language. His ultimate goal was to translate the entire Bible into Burmese— this, he firmly believed, was his first priority as a missionary and the key to the conversion of a nation. [UKT ¶]

Noting that the Burmese were a “reading people” with an extensive literature, he became more and more convinced that the written word was a vital evangelistic tool. In July 1816 he composed a manuscript about Burmese grammar and the text of his first tract, “A View of the Christian Religion.” The English Baptists in India supplied him with a press, and the American Baptist Board's first new appointee, missionary printer George H. Hough, arrived three months later. Judson completed the translation of the Gospel of Matthew in May 1817 and began compiling a full-fledged Burmese grammar—all while suffering from diseases and from grief over the death of a second child, seven-month-old Roger.

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Life of F. Carey during events in Burma

- UKT 201202

When did F. Carey visited Burma and what would have he seen can be gauged from the Timeline of Burmese history - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Burmese_history 201202.

1785	2 January	Konbaung armies capture Mrauk U, ending five centuries of Arakanese independence
1785		Bodawpaya's invasion of Siam fails; Lan Na now firmly in Siamese camp (to 1786)
1787		Defeats Siamese invasion of Tenasserim
1790		Resumes diplomatic relationship with China
1792		Defeats another Siamese invasion of Tenasserim
1797		Burmese invasion of Lan Na and Luang Prabang fails

1802		Ceylonese monks seek ordination at Amarapura
1803		Siamese invasion of Kengtung fails (to 1804)
1809		Burmese invasion of Junkceylon (Phuket) fails (to 1812)
1814	February	Burma annexes Manipur
1817		Assam becomes tributary to Burma
1819		Burmese put down rebellions in Assam and Manipur
1822	3 June	Burmese put down another rebellion in Assam, and make it a Burmese province
1824	5 March	Start of First Anglo-Burmese War

Would F. Cary and his father have met the following
- Father Sangermano , who wrote The Burmese Empire a hundred years ago - by Father Sangermano, 1833 - sang-s-indx.htm - update 13Sep)
- Bishop Bigandet, who wrote Gaudama the Buddha of the Burmese, by Bishop Bigandet, 1866 .
- BishopBigandet<Ô> / Bkp<Ô> (link chk 200308)

Whatever the case may be, what F. Cary has written on Burmese Grammar, is the grammar during the reign of King Bodawpaya of the Konbaung dynasty - the most colourful (may be on the verge of insanity) monarch. The Grammar gives quaint transcriptions of the Burmese names.

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Mixing up of Palatals

UKT 210108: Palatal affricates as base consonants are not present in Bur-Myan, because of which we don't have native glyphs for them. However, they are present in Skt-Dev, and whenever necessary, I rely on Devanagari aksharas to differentiate them. Thus:
{ñ~za.} ञ ् ज = ञ्ज can easily be differentiated from {z~ña.} ज ् ञ = ज्ञ .

The second one, ज्ञ , is one of the two Skt-Dev conjuncts that has baffled me for a long time:

¤ क ् ष = क्ष , Pseudo-Kha
¤ ज ् ञ = ज्ञ , Pseudo-Za

A word containing ज्ञ is ज्ञान "knowledge, wisdom" - https://www.pinterest.com/pin/371054456788781371/ 210108
I've listened the word pronounced by various speakers, Hindi and Sanskrit. One person pronounces it as / {ñaan}/ which in Burmese is "knowledge". However, pronunciation is not reliable when it comes to interpretation and deeper meaning. Spelling-wise - aks-to-aks - making allowance for difference in affricate and stop, I'll say it is the same as Bur-Myan {Zaan} ? According to my understanding of Theravada Buddhist practice, {Zaan} as "knowledge" is the product of {þa.ma.hta.}, whereas {ñaan} is the product of {wi.pæþ~þa.na}.